Africa's capacity for research and creating knowledge has always been the most marginalised and least competitive in the world. Research collaborations are paramount to revitalising African knowledge systems. Such partnerships bring in vital financial resources and much-needed academic and research competence, as well as enhancing intellectual capital and confidence. They also help tackle academic isolation. Collaborating with developed country researchers often generates publications in high-impact journals, making research institutions and their personnel more visible. This can lead to more grants, more research and publications, faster promotion and more invitations to major conferences and meetings. So institutions come under much pressure to form partnerships to attract financial, technical, and logistical support. In a typical flagship African university the list and diversity of international collaborations is quite remarkable.

Damtew Teferra is the Africa and Middle East director of the Ford Foundation International Fellowships Program, based in New York, and the founder and director of the International Network for Higher Education in Africa, at Boston College, United States.

Brain Mobility in the Emerging Virtual World The motivation of scholars to immigrate or their decisions to stay abroad is a product of a complex blend of economic, political, social, cultural, and personal matters. The impact and chemistry of each factor varies from country to country, from individual to individual, and fluctuates from time to time. Despite some economic and social success stories, most African countries constantly face economic hardships aggravated by political turmoil and social instabilities making it difficult for scholars to return home?while at the same time prodding those at home to migrate. Depressing news from home on suppression of dissident scholars by national governments furthermore discourages potential returnees, consequently frustrating the various efforts to contain the overflow of skilled personnel out of Africa. Most African institutions perpetually face the arduous task of ensuring a healthy working environment to keep their scholars contented, up to date, and integrated with the rest of the world scholarly community. The prologue?excerpts at the beginning?vividly attests to this reality. It is not my intention to dwell on the concerns reflected by the excerpts heretofore, but rather particularly underscore the significance of the conference theme. The main thrust of this article is to emphasize on the latency of skilled labor circulation?both in the traditional physical form as well as virtual mode?and the mechanism to tap its fluidity and power as enhanced by unprecedented and profound developments in information and communication technologies (ICTs). As much as the effort to regulate the impact of skilled personnel mobility relies on managing physical movement, the endeavor to exploit their potential in their place of residence has been apparently limited. It is the purpose of this article to underscore this domain that has been poorly exploited. It has now become a cliché to state that we live in an information age and the world has grown into a small village. The ramifications of these developments are however beyond the comprehension of many ordinary citizens of the world. In particular, numerous economically less developed countries that live at the backwaters of science and technology watch helplessly while the information high train speeds away. The urge to board this speedy train is tremendously intense and this is particularly so for the elite in these countries who follow up innovations and developments earnestly and jealously. African scholars make up the large proportion of this group. A few Africans however have managed to break the isolation iceberg owing largely to developments in ICTs through the Internet and email. They communicate with their colleagues internationally, locally, and regionally on scholarly, administrative, and personal matters; and this has helped to minimize the chronic problem of isolation many Africans still continue to face. The prologue and epilogue in this article testify to that effect. In 1994, the world map of the Internet connectivity showed only two countries in Africa having full Internet connectivity?South Africa and Egypt. To date, there is no country in Africa without some form of connectivity to Internet and all countries in Africa can be reached by email. Now the question is no longer whether or not Africa will ever get access to the Internet. Instead inquiries are about what African organizations and institutions will do with the technology (Dzidonu, 1999). The contribution and impact a technology can make largely depends on the existence of an enabling environment and critical mass of expertise that can exploit it, and the concern and consciousness to employ it in solving problems as well as exploring ways and means to reach new frontiers. Developments in ICTs?such as the World Wide Web and the Internet?have enabled to reach many frontiers that were just impossible some years back. It is hoped that these developments in technology can help to maximizing the exploitation of the brain mobility potential. The effort to enhance the contribution of native experts settled elsewhere in nation building in general and capacity building in particular?as well as to counteract the challenges of brain drain?has been hitherto focused on resettling the scholars back to their respective countries. The success of the various programs that are generally based on physically moving native experts has been however mixed. This is because the pull-push factors in the mobility process are so complex that they continue to frustrate many of these programs. Studies show that many immigrant scholars?particularly from Asia and Latin America?contribute tremendously to their native countries. Their contributions are not only through foreign currency remittances but serving as visiting scholars, creating virtual networks, and generally shaping the direction of the scholarly environment and capacity building. There are networks of ties that professionals working abroad often maintain with their home countries. Many Taiwanese scholars and scientists living in the US, for example, have maintained ties with colleagues in Taiwan, providing expertise, contacts with the Western scientific community, and in general providing a means of communication. Some return home to serve as consultants or visiting professors. A few have invested money in Taiwanese high-tech and other companies. Indians who have emigrated to the US have been active in the growing software industry in the Silicon Valley in California. They maintain contact with colleagues at home, often investing in the Indian companies or assisting in joint ventures between American and Indian firms in the computer industry. This pattern of contributing to scientific and technological development is repeated for many Third World countries, though not so for most of Africa yet (Altbach, 1991). And of course, Ethiopia is not an exception either -- yet. Government policies of some of these countries also actively promote and strategize the manner in which nationals contribute to their native countries. A particular case in point is Thailand that promotes brain mobility virtually?on the Internet. Under a very attractive banner on a web site that reads "The Reverse Brain Drain Project," it states dual missions. Of the two missions, the "high priority" is not to "promote and facilitate the return of Thai professionals overseas to work in government agencies or in the private sector [in Thailand]." It is rather to "identify and attract experienced high-level Thai professionals living overseas to participate in mission-oriented projects, and promote development of core teams led by the respective Thai professionals." In fact, the mission explicitly acknowledges de-emphasis on the permanent return program. It should be emphasized that the primary and major objective of the whole initiative is to make the immigrant nationals become part of the nation building process without uprooting them from their bases elsewhere. Philippines is a country where both "brain drain" and "brain hemorrhage" play themselves out at the same time. Gonzalez (1992) holds that this is a consequence of mismatch between the manpower needs of the country and the output of higher education?which he describes it as interlocking conflicts in policy and practice that produced both oversubscribed and under-subscribed expertise. Incidentally such mismatch is a very common phenomenon in numerous African countries where they suffer from lack of highly trained experts while at the same time many of their highly trained personnel remain unemployed and underemployed. Gonzalez holds that no uniform solution is possible, as the nature of the problem is different for each area. For oversubscribed professionals, he proposes overseas employment as a viable option; it is a source of foreign exchange and a natural way of population control. For under-subscribed professionals a system of incentives tied to a period of mandatory service, after which the beneficiary may exercise his/her options. Some lesson can be learned from this Asian experience. Certain government policies in Africa as well do not consider the movement of its scholars as brain drain?rather the contrary. Egypt, for example, considers its Diaspora as its treasures kept abroad. It is vital to affirm that these unclaimed treasures can potentially serve as another window to the industrialized world, as another bridge in knowledge transmission and exchange, and as another catalyst in fostering knowledge creation and utilization. It is apt to remark, therefore, that the Diaspora is a vital and influential community of "undercover" ambassadors?of their home countries and regions?without formally designated portfolio. Some African Diaspora communities have taken it upon themselves to contribute in the development of their home countries, among others, by establishing knowledge networks that span across the world. The Ethiopian community in Diaspora, for example, has established several virtual communities that discuss various social, political, ideological, economic, developmental, scientific, and technological issues. The recently established Association for Higher Education and Development (AHEAD) that is concerned about the migration of expert Ethiopians is an interesting case in point. In its recent communiqué, the authors succinctly wrote, "The purpose of this article is not, however, about the past. It is about the future. It is not about mistakes; it is about corrections. It is not about who is wrong and who is right. It is about lessons learned. It is not about failed duties, it is about paying back our country. It is not about brain drain, it is about reversing it." It goes on to say "Our long-term objective is to coordinate and channel the resources, expertise and creativity of Ethiopians in the Diaspora toward development efforts in their motherland. This means developing and operating a program that will facilitate the identification, selection and assignment of Ethiopian professionals to various voluntary activities in Ethiopia. It also means coordinating the Ethiopian community to establish a foundation to support Ethiopian higher education institutions and students" (AHEAD, 2000). The current initiative of AAU-Alumni network is another relevant case in point. With the expansion of online capabilities and access, many such virtual and "real" institutions have multiplied rapidly by many committed and concerned Africans in Diaspora. The impact, scope, and significance of such institutions, however, remain to be investigated. If the main purpose and objective of reversing brain flow is to build capacity of those countries that export and continue to export their experts?unwillingly or otherwise?the approach to moderate the flow should not therefore adopt one single strategy that predominantly leans toward repatriation. It is important to realize that skilled labor has propensities to mobility and appears futile to attempt to control it. Even numerous Western scholars whom we most of us trust as enjoying a far better autonomy and academic freedom and working and living conditions than their counterparts in the Third World, and especially Africa, crave for even more greener pastures elsewhere. A study made by Schuster (1994) that surveyed British faculty shows that 40 percent of all surveyed replied that they had "seriously" considered making a permanent move abroad. The study also shows that roughly twice as many faculty whose primary interest is "research" are emigration-prone compared to those whose primary interest is "teaching." Recalling that 40 percent of all university faculty say they have seriously considered moving abroad, the proportion climbs to 47.3 percent among the "researchers" but slips to 23.8 percent among the "teachers." Such studies urge that the traditional discourse to manage skilled labor mobility that predominantly leans on physical movement of experts be revisited. It should be noted as well that, what at one time was a "one way street" in which Third World professionals migrated to the West, maintaining few contacts at home, has been transformed into a complex set of relationships in which emigrant professionals contribute significantly to a growing world economy and to the flow of expertise?and sometimes capital?from the industrialized nations to many Third World and newly industrialized nations (Altbach, 1991). Because the mobility of skilled labor is a complex process, it is imperative to adopt various strategies and approaches to address it. Even the variety of strategies and approaches that are often adopted have to be reexamined in the face of changing social, economic, political, demographic, and technological paradigms. The economic paradigm of the twentieth century that was largely dependent on natural resources has now shifted to an information-dominated one driven by knowledge creation and dissemination. On the technological front, unprecedented developments in ICTs have opened the world of opportunities that were not even imagined a couple of years ago. In the political front, the culmination of the Cold War brought about a massive movement of people across the strategic divide. These snapshots of developments therefore underscore the point that strategies and approaches to address the brain mobility issue take heed of these global dynamics. As a matter of fact, the global dynamics that currently spins on information and knowledge platforms brings a whole lot of meaning to the philosophy and doctrine of the movement of skilled labor force that creates, consumes, manages, and distributes information and knowledge. It is, therefore, pertinent to underscore that the national and international endeavor, to address the issue of African skilled labor mobility, should as well focus on fostering the utilization, contribution, and exploitation of the brain power of native immigrants wherever they reside. It is therefore crucial that the doctrine of human capital circulation?dominated by physical movement of skilled personnel?be dutifully reformulated to accommodate and mobilize the growing potential of immigrant African scholars to participate in nation building virtually as well. Virtual in this particular context is used to signify skilled immigrant participation in nation building without physically relocating them into their native countries where their expertise is sought. Stay tuned for the next part. Damtew Teferra is a co-director and lead researcher of the African Higher Education Project at the Center for International Higher Education in School of Education, at Boston College, USA. His address is The Center for International Higher Education, School of Education, Campion Hall 207B, Boston College, MA 02467, USA; Tel. (617) 783 4807 (home), (617) 552 1279/4413 (off.); fax: (617) 552 8422; email: teferra@bc.edu or damtewteferra@ethioworld.com; Internet: http://www2.bc.edu/~teferra.

Prologue "And what for I, with my brains and talent, was born in Russia?" (Alexander Pushkin 19th Century Russian Poet) "Coming back to my native Pakistan in 1951 after taking my Ph D in theoretical physics at Cambridge and after a research period at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies, I began to teach at the Lahore Government College. In this position, I found myself desperately isolated. As the only theoretical physicist in the country, I had no one in my vicinity to talk to, to discuss or share ideas with. The academic climate was not stimulating at all. After three years, I realized that staying any longer would not make sense; my work would deteriorate, the harvest of my achievements in physics would go to waste and I would be of no use to my countryÖ. I reluctantly decided to return to Cambridge." Abdus Salam . Founder of the Trieste Center for Theoretical Physics, Italy "I feel frustrated when I want to do a piece of work but fail because of lack of basic facilities to do the job. Sometimes I look for a sabbatical leave to go and do research in a more sophisticated laboratory so that I can publish a standard paper." A Chemist, Tanzania (1999) "I feel somehow isolated because of lack of appropriate research facilities." A chemist, University of Dar es Salaam (1999) "Salaries of Third World continuously remain low, thus some people are tempted to look for better salaries elsewhere, thus Africa will become a brain-drained continent." A Geologist, University of Botswana (1999) "I try to attend conferences, get materials which inform me of current research activities in research centers abroad [to tackle isolation]." A Physicist, Addis Ababa University (2000) Introduction The movement of scholars from one country to another is known by numerous synonymsóBrain drain, brain hemorrhage, and euphemistically as brain circulation. The controversy over the concept has been such that some refute concerns over the issue as emotional nationalistic nonsense (Das, 1974) while others urge for a serious commitment by some developing countries, particularly Africa, to staunch the serious outflow of their trained personnel (Sattaur, 1989). While one school of thought treats such movements as an extreme form of institutional nomadism (Hountondjii, 1990) another views it as a circulation of skilled labor in the emerging interdependent global economy (North, 1992). As much as the terms to describe the phenomenon of skilled labor mobility are used interchangeably, their particular use often connotes the magnitude of the net flow and the perceived impact the movement has caused on losing countries. It is appropriate to state as well that the terms coined to express the events in a particular country at a particular point in time evolve as the overall state of that country shifts. While this article favors the term ìbrain mobilityî owing to the current technological, economic, demographic, and social developments in the world and the complexity of the phenomenon, it, however, uses existing terms flexibly and interchangeably largely based on the premise they were initially conceived. The international migration of scholars is a phenomenon as old as universities themselvesóand therefore not peculiar to developingcountries. Generally perceived to be a constructive dynamic, the movement of teachers and researchers from one national setting to anotheróranging from permanent relocation to short-term visits or exchange programsófacilitates the dissemination of knowledge and the broadening of cultural horizons. However, when one nation becomes a substantial net exporter of academic (or other intellectual) talent, a ìbrain drainî condition is said to occur. The presence of this condition suggests that the sender nation is at risk of depleting its natural supply of intellectual talent (Schuster, 1994). Brain drain emerged as a concept in the 1960s during massive migration of mainly British scholars to the US. After the culmination of the Second World War, ìbetween 1949 and 1965 about 97,000 high-skill scholars emigrated to the USA, mainly from Great Britain, Germany and Canada.î Since the mid-1960s and in particular during the 1970s the geographic structure of the brain drain process noticeably changed, the developing countries becoming its ìnutrient mediumî (Simanovsky, et al 1996). With worsening economic hardships, social unrest, political turmoil, and declining work and living conditions at home, the volume of this nutrient medium has expanded, consequently intensifying the outflow. Some statistics to indicate the current wave is in order. In 1998 nearly 120 doctors were estimated to have emigrated from Ghana and between 600 to 700 Ghanaian physicians are practicing in the USA alone. This represents roughly 50 percent of the total population of doctors in the country. It is estimated that about 10,000 Nigerian academics are now employed in USA alone and more than 1,000 professionals left Zimbabwe only in 1997. What is the picture like Ethiopia? The estimates for Ethiopia indicate that about 50 percent of the Ethiopians who went abroad for training have not returned home for the past 10 to 15 years after completing their studies. Between 1980-91, a total of 5,777 students have returned from studies abroad out of the 22,700 students who went abroadówhich is a mere 39 percent (Sethi, 2000). Some specific figures may probably tell the story even better. In Addis Ababa University, Ethiopiaówhere the author worked for over 10 years ó, of about 20 faculty members of the physics department who left for Ph. D. studiesóalmost all to the United statesónone returned (Teferra, 1997). The same holds true for Mathematics department at the same university where the extent of non-returnees continues to force the department to employ fresh graduates regularly. Corpuses of literature on skilled labor mobility list a variety of pros and cons of the phenomenon. The major perceived negative impact of brain mobility that are often stated includes the erosion of the national scientific and technological potential of the losing country, cost of education of emigrants in the home country, and lost investment and benefits due to departure of specialists needed for the country. On the other hand the following are considered as major positive developments: better opportunity and personal development for the immigrant, financial benefits (by way of remittances) to home country, and serving as ìsafety netî for excess expertise produced. It is important however to stress that the pros and cons of the migration of skilled labor is far more complex and complicated than outlined here that necessitated a brief discussion later in the chapter. * The author is a co-director and lead researcher of the African Higher Education Project, based at the Center for International Higher Education, Boston College, USA. He may be contacted at teferra@bc.edu or damtewteferra@ethioworld.com.

First and foremost I would like to express my appreciation to those especially who started this discussion forum and to those who brought the issue of Brain drain (migration of intellectuals) to the forefront of the discussion, as it is the currently singularly most damaging insurmountable problem of not only Addis Ababa University (AAU) but also of almost all Ethiopian Higher Institutions of Learning (EHIL). Experience shows that only very few EHIL have managed to minimise the migration of their academic staff to an insignificantly low level, and even these institutions are by no means immune to the problems of staff shortage faced by AAU. Before I indulge into the main issue of migration of intellectuals, I would like to clarify on what AAU has come to represent within the last four years and what it used to be before that. AAU before 1996 used to include many EHIL situated out of Addis Ababa, and these were referred to as 'satellite' or 'peripheral' colleges. Awasa Agricultural College, Gondar Medical College, Bahir Dar Teachers College and others were once satellite colleges, and graduates from these colleges have indeed received diplomas with the emblems of AAU on it. Th reason why we are raising the issue of migration is mainly because we all want to solve some of the problems our country is facing. Generally our concern and contribution, most often, is closely related to our former attachments and contact be it at the personal or institutional level (and in this particular case being an alumni of the home institution). Alumni of the satellite colleges of AAU prior to 1996 may also want to contribute as those of us who graduated from the main campuses (Addis Ababa) of AAU want to do, but the exclusion from AAU would be a major hindrance for them, as the majority of graduates in Ethiopia are from main campuses of AAU; one can not underestimate the effect of sheer number on impact. Moreover history shows us that one of the major sources of the problems faced by development of Ethiopia as envisaged by the former king was his perception and too much emphasis on developing a central-'light'-of-knowledge from which all the rest of Ethiopia would absorb from through gradual diffusion (Please see 'The Ethiopians" - by Professor Edward Ullendorff). The results, as we know, were on the contrary, rural Ethiopians started flocking to the capital believing that 'the asphalt in Addis Ababa was made of gold'. There is no need to repeat that mistake, (in an exaggeration) we could be the first to learn from history. Resources, in many instances, may limit the scope of action, but I would take it a reserve force and alternative if we also discuss about plan and help concerning other EHIL. I have taught at Bahir Dar Teachers College (BDTC) for as long as I have worked in Ethiopia. In these 15 years there has been a high tendency to move to the main part of AAU situated in the capital. The current staff composition of the departments of Geography, English, Mathematics, Chemistry and others of AAU are witnesses to this fact. This shows that peripheral EHIL are staff reserves for AAU, as most are poorly equipped and badly managed to hold their staff for long. Raising this issue at this late time, I understand, may have disadvantages in that it may take us back to a wider discussion as to some of the already agreed upon issues and associations this forum has created, but the advantages may outweigh this fact for the following reasons. Firstly it may help us embrace those who want to contribute and may have been unintentionally excluded by the restriction of the discussion to AAU sensu stricto. Secondly the benefits that may result from future discussions concerning the fate of those forgotten EHIL will undoubtedly be gratifying in that they are institutions no one (including the ministry of Education) cares about. It is the duty of Ethiopians in Diaspora that have more exposure in terms of higher institutions to show the importance these institutions by raising issues pertaining to them. All Ethiopian Higher Institutions of Learning are decaying or are being destroyed at alarming rate, but the way the destruction is happening in the periphery is indescribable and we should heed to the out cry and hear the untold stories of these EHIL secondarily if not at equal terms with the giant AAU. Therefore the following discussion is not restricted to AAU sensu-stricto, i.e. the post-1996 AAU, but AAU sensu-lato, as it used to be before 1996. In fact I will try to emphasise on all EHIL in Ethiopia instead of only on AAU. Please allow me to indulge into a more general issue first. 1. Preamble The role of education in the initiation for betterment of the quality of life, recognition of drawbacks and hindrances in the actual process of development and in the formulation of possible remedies can not be overemphasised. Among educational centres, higher institutions of learning are seen by the society as role models of innovation and change at large and are expected to play the critical role in promoting sustainable economic, social and cultural development (UNESCO, 1998). Seen within the light of this critical role they are endowed, higher institutions of learning carry a lion’s share of the load of responsibilities. Nevertheless, there is a growing awareness that these institutions are far from achieving their intended goals. At most they are said to be in crisis (Scott, 1984), entangled in a net of constraining problems including financial, standard maintenance, relevance, equity and others (World Bank, 1986; UNESCO, 1998). Because of the high cost incurred in running these learning institutions, such a failure especially in developing countries where the pay off from these institutions is expected to be substantially higher (Psacharopoulos & Hinchliffe, 1973), is too expensive to afford. As a result possible reasons for their failure need to be critically assessed to be able to improve their current situation. 2. Brain Drain "Brain drain" (as has also been presented by other writes for the newsletter) is the term that, most often, denotes migration of the highly trained manpower from developing countries often to developed countries. Awareness to the problem of Brain Drain and extensive research on its reasons, economic implications and possible solutions has taken place mainly in the early seventies (Psacharopoulos & Hinchliffe,1973; Bhagwati, 1976; Krugman & Bhagwati,1976). Scott (1970), cited in Krugman & Bhagwati (1976), grouped potential reasons for skilled migration into four categories. These are income differentials, professional opportunities, living conditions, and working conditions. Whatever the cause of movement of the most trained manpower from developing countries, IT IS UNDESIRABLE for the countries of origin in that it has negative economic impact and internal diffusion is inhibited at the outset seen from the point of view of education (Bhagwati, 1976). Free movement of labour force is closely related to the more recent phenomenon of globalisation, thus the recent neglect of the issue of Brain Drain by researchers. Axford (1995) and Kaul (1996) have lightly discussed the migration of workforce in relation to globalisation. The former, citing Handy (1994), argues that "...intelligence is the new form of property and the basis for wealth creation", seemingly giving more emphasis to what developing countries lose when their trained man power migrates. The latter, however, argues that migration could have beneficial effects on both the sending and receiving countries by indicating the contribution of workers’ remittances to the economy. Nonetheless, understanding the magnitude of the problem, UNESCO (1998) has stressed on the need for further study to understand the causes and effects of Brain Drain, and to create the conditions for the smooth return of professionals to their home countries. An aspect of migration that was given relatively less attention and on which only limited research has been done is migration to other developing countries within the same continent, and within regions of the same country. This latter type of migration which is also referred to as job turnover, is studied more recently relatively more than the others. In a study of professors and lecturers of a Norwegian university, Manger & Eikeland (1990) concluded that the considered professionals were triggered to leave their university mainly due to non-conducive collegial relationships. Economic gain such as salary had no effect on the mobility of the staff. Nevertheless it would be naïve to expect the same in developing countries. 3. Staff Development The writer believes that one of the humongous obstacles to Ethiopian Higher Institutions of Learning (EHIL) is lack of vision in staff development and complete absence of attempt to harmonise staff needs with the institution's and country's needs. "Staff development" has been interpreted and understood in various ways. A definition most accepted by researchers in the field is " a systematic attempt to harmonise individuals’ interests and wishes, and their carefully assessed requirements for furthering their careers with the forthcoming requirements of the organisation within which they are expected to work" (Warren-Piper and Glatter, 1977). ACFHE/APC (1973) had suggested that development of the staff is not only about the individual but also the organisation he/she is expected to work, and staff development is the means to avoid the conflict of interest between higher institutions as an organisation and their staff. Without staff development progress is limited in any organisation. It is a process that serves a guard against stagnation and missing out on new fields and opportunities (Rizk, 1992). UNESCO in its conference on higher education (1998) has underlined the importance of setting a vigorous policy of staff development to the well being and healthy functioning of higher learning institutions to live up to the expectations of their respective societies. According to the declaration by UNESCO, "adequate provision should be made for research and for updating and improving pedagogical skills, through appropriate staff development programmes, encouraging constant innovation in curriculum, teaching and learning methods, and ensuring appropriate professional and financial status, and for excellence in research and teaching..." and "experience outside the institutions ought to be considered as a relevant qualification for higher educational staff". To this effect, "states, including their governments, parliaments and other decision makers, should establish clear policies concerning higher education teachers". 4. Ethiopian Higher Institutions of Learning; 4.1. General : At the moment all eighteen accredited Ethiopian higher institutions of learning are public, i.e. they are funded by the central government, their programs as well are mainly designed and controlled by the government. In addition, there are few regional colleges that are financed, guided and controlled by the respective regional states. These colleges differ from the eighteen in that their goals, student screening and other administrative aspects are region-specific. A more recent phenomenon in various parts of the country is the tendency to establish private colleges, although all except one are not accredited hitherto. Therefore the following discussion concerns only the national and public ones. The eighteen Ethiopian higher learning institutions can be grouped in to three main categories: These are 1) Addis Ababa University with its various faculties, schools, institutes and a college, 2) Alemaya University of Agriculture with its faculties and schools, and 3) The remaining twelve colleges, three institutes, and one school, which the government has decided, and is currently organising them to a number of regional universities. Consequently, recently the programs and some of these peripheral colleges including Alemaya University of Agriculture have been redesigned and expanded according to government plan. With respect to autonomy, all institutions are closely regulated (and controlled) by the Ministry of Education, i.e. the government body in charge of all educational affairs, including accreditation, in the country. 4.2. EHIL's Goal: Ethiopian higher institutions of learning are established with the general expectations that are common to all African universities, i.e. they are to address the problems of poverty, social disorganisation, low production, unemployment, hunger, literacy, disease that is the problems of underdevelopment (Mosha, 1986) and with the specific objectives; to train and produce qualified manpower required for economic and social development, conduct research and disseminate results, and provide community services. No doubt Ethiopian higher learning institutions also share the immense contributions made to society by other African Universities: "producing manpower that currently fills many strategic positions in government, industry, the public, and private sectors; integrate different sexes, social and economic, tribal and religious backgrounds, and develop research and consultancy skills". However, seen within the light of the current serious socio-economic problems of the country, the notion that Ethiopian higher institutions of learning have succeeded in achieving their ultimate goals and in fulfilling social expectations is difficult to accept. We can not overlook the fact that their weakness, undoubtedly, is a monumental witness to the failure of a generation. 4.3 Staff and their academic qualification in EHIL: Looking at the staff composition, currently except for Wondo-Genet College of Forestry, Jimma College of Agriculture, Ambo College of Agriculture and Kottebe College of Teachers Education, all the remaining fourteen institutions are supported by expatriate staff. Among these fourteen, those with high proportion of expatriate staff (about 15 %) are Bahir Dar Polytechnic Institute, Arbaminch Water Technology, Dilla College of Teachers Education and Health Sciences, and Nazareth Technical College. The remaining ten colleges have expatriate staff ranging from one to 12 per cent with a mean of five per cent. Stressing on the profile of qualification, only Addis Ababa University has a third of its staff trained to a PhD level. Jimma Institute of Health Sciences (22.3 %), Alemaya University of Agriculture (21.2 %), and Awassa College of Agriculture (18.5 %) follow it. The remaining 14 institutions have an average of seven per cent of their staff trained to a PhD level. Institutions whose staff is particularly high in the number of first degree holders are Mekelle Business College (75.7 %), Nazareth Technical College (55.1 %), and Addis Ababa Commercial College (50.6 %). 4.4. Constraints in EHIL: Higher institutions of learning all over the world are facing problems and hindrances of one type or another. Likewise, African universities are hindered from realising their intended gaols by the serious problems they are facing. The general scenario in which these institutions are trying to function in the different African countries is more or less the same. The main problems are shortage of human, financial and material resources; inept managerial and administrative machinery; political turbulence and blind ideological commitments, and lack of direction (Mosha, 1986). Ethiopian institutions of higher learning are not only non-immune to the "plague" that has crippled other African universities, but also they are chronically debilitated until they have currently become functionally inactive, and in some cases "dead", in their attempt (not as high as to improve or achieve excellence in their various programs but) to maintain a fair standard of teaching-learning process and research atmosphere. All funding of the Ethiopian higher institutions of learning comes from the central government through the Ministry of Education. Financial problems, therefore, need to be recognised and addressed by the proper authorities. The solutions to these problems in any case are within the scope and capacities of the Ministry of Education and the writer believes that it only takes the will that MOE that currently lacks. What at the moment could be out of the control limit of the Ministry of Education is the human resource. Quality professors, highly trained and experienced researchers and consultants have been leaving their positions in higher learning institutions. Also, staff members of peripheral colleges do show a tendency to move to those situated closer to the centre. Furthermore a significant proportion of the staff in most institutions has been targeting positions out of the country. This kind of migration from peripheral colleges to the centre and finally out of the country has not only made many positions vacant but also currently irreplaceable. The measures taken to alleviate the shortage of staff seems to be inadequate to solve the problem as such. This is mainly because those that move out of the country are the ones that can compete in the international market and succeed in securing positions. Consequently, as Mosha (1986) commented "a number of universities are left with newly graduated staff who lack experience, or old and bogus professors whose marketability elsewhere is low". The impact of such a staff on the quality of education need not be over-emphasised. The seriousness of the problem of staff migration in Ethiopian institutions of higher learning can be exemplified by taking a college familiar to me, i. e. Bahir Dar Teachers College (BDTC). BDTC is one of the peripheral colleges that has made an immense contribution by training junior and senior secondary school teachers for the whole country. The college has, however, been facing several problems among which, according to the writer, migration of experienced staff is the most serious. A preliminary assessment in the college has revealed that in a time space of 15 years the entire staff has been replaced by new ones. Had the qualification and experience of those staff who left the college and those replacing them been the same, there would have never been any problem, but actually the experienced and well-trained staff have been replaced, in all cases, by much younger and inexperienced staff. This has hindered development in the college with respect to the teaching-learning process and research activities. Experienced staff would be able to play an important role in guiding the younger and inexperienced staff in research and could have led the way in establishing centres of excellence. This did not happen in BDTC for the above-mentioned reason. To my knowledge the problem of staff migration is not unique to BDTC. It has been debilitating almost all peripheral colleges in the country, especially Alemaya University of Agriculture to the point of collapse, and is a serious problem even to the well established Addis Ababa University. (I will come back to the reasons later). 5. The issue of expectation versus pay-back: A personal opinion: The two hitherto presented articles in newsletter (I apologise if I have missed others that might had appeared before I joined the forum) seem to have the tendency to attempt to redirect or solve the problems of Brain Drain very well but without addressing some basic issues. Addressing the basic issues, I believe, will bring a common understanding among discussants and will give us a common ground and perspective to view things that are now happening in our country, if we Ethiopian intellectuals in Diaspora are to make a significant positive contribution to the EHIL. This does not mean I disagree with what has been indicated in those three articles, on the contrary: with due respect the views expressed are positive, constructive and may only need to be refined in view of a common good. There were also some serious views generated through comparison. We, in no way, are in a position to compare the loss of our intellectuals with countries such as India or South Africa. Our situation, understandably, is quite different in its extent. Recently my eyes were caught by the following. The writer was talking about Iraq's situation. "…the living standards of a once-developed country (Iraq) have been reduced to the level of Ethiopia." (The voteless victims. The Guardian - United Kingdom; May 30, 2001, by SEUMAS MILNE). We, the poorest of the poor in the 21ts century with all the records of the end products of ignorance and poverty (including death from Malaria, AIDS, hunger, malnutrition, fistula, car accident and others) and with probably only one full fledged professor out of the capital, it would be meaningless to compare our position with other countries. Comparing ours with that of other country's problems only reminds me the case of the crying two children: one because of his mother's death, the other because his mother went to fetch water. So please let us remain focused on the Ethiopian issue and do not let what happens elsewhere distract us. We are below the bare minimum and the ultimate reference of poverty on the planet and we should get that into our heads once and for all. I personally believe that we need to address basic issues thoroughly, if we are to develop the commitment needed to arrive at a set of goals in our future endeavour to contribute to the betterment of university education in Ethiopia. It will also help us sieve ourselves to the better, and will unite those who strongly believe that it is our responsibility to help EHIL. Organisations/associations that are started with non-committed members as majority may not stand the test of time and hardship. As a result this association/working group would only benefit from having more dialogue. I would like to clearly state that I am not so patriotic as I used to be. I once had returned from a foreign land to contribute in my capacity to EHIL while I had all the opportunity to work and live abroad. But I have very little positive to tell you about my experience of those few years in Ethiopia. In spite of this, I strongly believe, we all have to try our best to help. My reasons -I will try to clarify below. The history of education shows us that education assisted, through initiation, the social recognition of the individual as capable and responsible members of communities for all kinds of social activities. It was never meant to solely improve the individuals' stature just for the sake of it. Nevertheless the well being of the individual was always sought after, as the individual was, and still is, the ultimate fabric of the entire society. At present education is a basic human right. The UN declaration of human rights states "Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory…. and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.". In our country education is free (including university education) to those of us who have access to all levels (though there are recent tendencies to introduce a fee-paying system). But we need to ask the questions "How much of the nation's income has gone to higher education at the expense of education at the base, i. e. the elementary and high school?". Seen within the fact that the highest expense in education per individual is always at the university level, each of us who had the chance to join a higher institution of learning (HIL) in Ethiopia, therefore, must have used a few other citizens' chance to go to school at a lower level. This is not only true to our country but is also true to other developing countries for obvious reasons of financial constraints and resource limitations. Also the relatively recent introduction of modern education coupled with its initially restricted extent limited the accumulation of intellectual wealth in the country. As a result there is a chronic shortage of qualified professionals in every field all over the country, though it is more in the periphery. Due to the low number of professionals, the loss of one professional can be significant and devastating in our country than anywhere else. Unlike ours, most developed countries have created the necessary preconditions to enable individuals to fully cover or subsidise their studies at higher institution of learning. In other cases the country's investment on the individual's education compared to their accumulated wealth has become insignificantly low, and the education of one citizen at the expense of the other never happens. The accumulated intellectual wealth also renders the social expectation from individuals minimal or almost non-existent. Ethiopia's social expectation from the educated has not changed much over the last fifty years and can be summarised by a statement I took from Dr. Mesay Kebede's letter to Addis Tribune (The rise of Ethiopian nihilism and the plight of AAU, 15-09-2000 issue). "…it clearly defined modern education as an assignment, a mission given to the few to return with the secrete machine. … It was rather a mission to salvage by empowering the Ethiopian legacy with the knowledge of machine.". ("It" in the first sentence refer to the popular support in the form of 'illilta'). Did we manage to deliver what was expected of us by our society? What happened in between now and then? Did we make life better for the farmer and the city dweller in those fifty or so years? I feel it is time to ask what our share was in all what happened and what our mistakes and problems are which need to be rectified for the future. There is a tendency to blame the former military regime for what happened in Ethiopia, but it may not help to hang on forever at blaming the 17-year military junta for everything that failed in that country. Instead we should also learn to accept responsibility as a major component and driving force of the system. Failure to do that would only be self-illusion, and that we have had enough. We did so much wrong through the participation of some of us in the most destructive activities governments executed in that country, our present outcry, for the uneducated Ethiopian, is "jiraf erasu gerifo erasu yichohal". I am not only talking of the past, this is still going on and our discussion and strong stand against such individuals/activities should go one step further than what we did and are doing. Only such action may deter future participation of the elite in deliberate destructive activities of governments. Our delivery to the Ethiopian uneducated, therefore, was the wrong package. On whichever side we stand we all are categorised under the name "Ethiopian educated elite". It is my belief that we, the very people who facilitated the destruction of entire social structure, need to help correct the situation. It is obvious that either we were not courageous enough to face the problems or we had accessible opportunity to be able to work and live abroad. Whichever the case, this apparent freedom and independence compared to those who are within the crippling factors of the country give us the relative ability to help. Consequently it is our moral responsibility to extend our vision and hands to the very institutions that some how managed to produce us but terribly failed as institutions to deliver what they were meant to. Once we agree on the responsibility bestowed on us, we may need to talk of is, what is needed to be done and what can we deliver within a reasonable time frame. An open discussion on this issue would be helpful. For a moment I will detour and comment on some of the raised practical ways of reversing Brain Drain. The UN in the seventies has tried a number of attempts to reverse the situation, but none of the experiments worked due to the complexity and variation of the problem from country to country. As time went by the concern in the issue declined. More recently migration has become an issue in association with the deterioration of life standards in sub-Saharan Africa. The UN started to implement the repatriation of professionals to many southern countries but with special emphasis to Africa. Ethiopia became part of the project in the mid-90s. A few hundred returnees went back, most being from former east block countries. The government welcomed the return of the professionals initially, but as the IOM started discussions seriously the government made agreements almost unworkable. Although a number of the returnee still are within the country, some have left the country within a few years. Why did these people return to their countries from their settled life? And why did they leave their country before they started life there?. These are critical questions to be answered if future attempts are to be successful. (Please refer to Couple's Gift Turns to Sacrifice: Family Frets, Waits in U.S. as Ethiopian Academic Is Jailed Abroad, by Michael E. Ruane, Washington Post, May 31, 2001). Furthermore this will direct us to focus on the main reasons of migration from Ethiopian Higher Institutions of Learning. Each of us should ask why we moved out? Until now I am not aware of a research done on the migration of staff from EHIL - (I believe) we need to base our action on facts and not on hearsay and that should be the first step e should take as planners. I would like to share what my experience in this regard. A simple survey of reasons at the former BDTC revealed that the main root cause of migration to be mismanagement and poor governance. Nevertheless it is these very people who, according to the research, are reasons for migration of experienced staff that currently administer the university. Though the result incriminated them, the result of the survey was, nevertheless, communicated to the officials. This actually made things so worse that six out of the nine PhD holders in the faculty left within a time span of eight months. If the situation is similar in AAU (which I believe is), where do we start? I guess it would be an issue to discuss in the forum, if we do not consider these facts ahead, our future attempts may be 'pushing a brick wall'. However gloomy the picture looks, we should try to be optimistic. There is no choice. As Helen Keller said "Optimism is the faith that leads to achievement. Nothing can be done without hope and confidence.". It is "To look up and not down, To look forward and not back, To look out and not in, and To lend a hand." (Edward Everett Hale). References Association of Colleges of Further and Higher Education/Association of Principals in Colleges. 1973. Staff Development inFurther Education. London, ACFHE/APC. Axford, B. 1995. The Global System: Economics Politics and Culture. Polity Press, Cambridge, 250pp. Bhagwati, J. N. 1976. The Brain Drain tax proposal and the issues pages 3-52, in Taxing The Brain Drain I, A Proposal, J. N. Bhagwati and M. Partington (eds). North-Holland Pub. Comp. Amsterdam. 222 pp. Handy, C. 1994. The Empty Raincoat. London. Hutchinson. Kaul, I. 1996. Opening Statement. Pages 51-72, in Proceedings of conference on Globalization, Competetiveness and HUMAN Security: Challengs for Development Policy and Institutional Change. Vienna, 11-14, 1996. Petitat-Cote, E. (eds.), 195pp. Krugman, P. & J. Bhagwati. 1976. The Decision to Migrate. Pages 31-51 in The Brain Drain and Taxation: Theory and Empirical Analysis. J. N. Bhagwati (ed.), North-Holland Publishing Comp., Amsterdam. 273 pp. Manger, T. & O-J. Eikeland. 1990. Factors Predicting Staff’s Intentions to Leave the University. Higher Education, 19: 281-291. Mosha, H. J. 1986. The Role of African Universities in National Developments: A Critical Analysis. Higher Education, 15: 113-134. Warren-Piper, D & R. Glatter. 1977. The Changing University. National Foundation for Wducational Research, Wndsor. Psacharopoulos, G. & K. Hinchliffe. 1973. Return to Education: An International Comparison. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Comp. Amsterdam. 217pp. Rizk, G. A. 1992. Standing Conference Staff Development in Higher Education and Cross-Cultural Dialogue: An Egyptian Project pages 73-82, in Advanced Study Programmes for Key Persons and Cross-Cultural Dialogue North-South-East-West, B. Berent & J. Stray (eds). Peter Lang Frankfurt am Main. 390 pp. Scott, A. 1970. The Brain Drain — Is a Human Capital Approach Justified?, in: Education, Income, and Human Capital, W. L. Hansen, ed., NBER, New York. Scott, P. 1984. The Crisis of the University. Croom Helm Ltd. London. 277pp. UNESCO. 1998. World Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-first Century: Vision and Action and Framework for Priority Action for Change and Development in Higher Education, adopted by World Conference on Higher Education, October 9, 1998. World Bank. 1986. Financing Education in Developing Countries: An Exploration of Policy Options. Washington DC. 67pp.1

The 1920s, as we saw last week, were a time when increasing numbers of young Ethiopians were despatched for study abroad. This policy was actively promoted by the then ruler, the Regent and Heir to the Throne, Ras Tafari Makonnen. His attitude to this educational enterprise is apparent from a speech which he made, on 17 December 1926, when receiving a batch of twenty-one students prior to their departure. In this address, which was characteristic of his approach to youth, he spoke to the youngsters almost as a father to his sons, and declared:

One of the pre-war Educated: Aklilu Habte Wold, Phtographed later as Prime Minister Falsahas A group of 22 Falashas, or Ethiopian Beta Esra’el, students were also sent abroad, in the 1920s and 1930s. They went, under Jewish auspices, to study a wide variety of subjects, in various countries, including Palestine, Egypt, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, France, and England. Women’s Education Abroad Women's education advanced much slower than that of men. Nevertheless, the Emperor's daughter, Princess Tsehai, was sent to Switzerland. She was tutored by Lola Flad, the granddaughter of the Swiss missionary of that name. During the Italian occupation Tsehai was well known as a nurse in England, and after the liberation set about establishing medical facilities in Ethiopia, but died prematurely. A hospital in her name was later founded in Addis Ababa. During her Swiss days she was accompanied by Yemiseratch Imru, the daughter of Ras Imru, and Amsale Heruy, daughter of the Blattengeta Heruy. All three women were taught French by Lola Flad, and returned home with her, in 1928. Shortly after this Kantiba Gabru's two daughters, Yubdar and Sededu, were sent to St. Chrischona, near Basle. Senedu subsequently went to Lausanne. Imprisoned in Italy during the Italian occupation, she subsequently wrote a play on that event, and later became Director of the Manan School for Girls, and was Ethiopia's first woman Member of Parliament. Eritreans Students sent abroad by the Ethiopian Government in this period included a significant number of youths from Eritrea. The Italian colony was then very poorly supplied with educational facilities, most of which, in view of the Fascist racial laws, were in any case not available to "natives". Tafari and his Government, following established tradition, on the other hand made no distinction between Eritreans and other Ethiopians. Eritreans educated abroad at Ethiopian Government expense included Lorenzo Taezaz, of Adi Caieh, Dawit Ogbazgy, of Daro Pawlos in Hamasen, and Saraqa Berhan Gabra Egzi, of Akala Guzay. Another Eritrean, Ato Ambay, who served as Ethiopian Political Director in Harar at the time of the Italian invasion, told the British journalist George Steer that he had left Eritrea "like all who had reached a certain level of education and could not bear a racial tyranny". The Returnees Ethiopia’s student returnees were, for the most part, deeply patriotic. Their attitude may be seen in the words of a student, who, on returning from the United States, wrote in an Amharic poem: If the Lord helps me and give me strength, I wish to learn for the good of my country. We will study diligently and learn much, So that the foreigners will not come to rule us! If we think and study with attention, We will learn to do what others do. We must study as much as we can Because, if we do not study, our country will be finished: we will lose it. A similar point of view was expressed by the LSE graduate Lej Yilma Deressa, who observed to the Hungarian journalist Ladislas Farago, immediately prior to the Italian war: "We young Ethiopians are in duty bound to our country. We are the bridge that the Emperor has thrown across to European culture. It goes almost without saying that we are sent to finish our education in Europe or North Africa. Ethiopian students are to be found in all the important universities of the world. The Foreign Minister's sons studied in Oxford and Cambridge . . . This growing generation will complete the civilisation of our country."